the syllabus says...
This page deals with the following elements of the syllabus:
5. Socio-cultural exchanges
- Socio-cultural integration: Examine the role of diasporas in preserving culture in one country and the adoption of minority traits by host societies
- Socio-cultural integration: Examine the ways in which international interactions may result in the homogenisation and dilution of culture.
- Socio-cultural integration: Define and exemplify the concept of cultural imperialism.
6. Political outcomes
- Responses: Examine the resurgence of nationalism in one country as it attempts to retain control of its resources and culture.
5. Socio-cultural exchanges
- Socio-cultural integration: Examine the role of diasporas in preserving culture in one country and the adoption of minority traits by host societies
- Socio-cultural integration: Examine the ways in which international interactions may result in the homogenisation and dilution of culture.
- Socio-cultural integration: Define and exemplify the concept of cultural imperialism.
6. Political outcomes
- Responses: Examine the resurgence of nationalism in one country as it attempts to retain control of its resources and culture.
the end of GLOBAL cultural diversity?
In a national context, especially in countries where there is a question over sovereignty such as those in the European Union, cultural diversity can often be seen as a political question. Is it right that countries should try to integrate with others, and that minority populations within them should adapt to the majority culture? Or should a diversity of cultures, all independent and separate, be celebrated as giving a wider variety of outlooks on life? This page will assess the question of whether globalization is contributing to the forces that assert cultural diversity, or whether the responses to globalization mean that individual cultures are better protected now than they ever have been.
the end of GLOBAL cultural diversity: cultural imperialism
Globalization of culture is occurring because of increasing global connections. This is through TV, radio, the internet, satellite telephones, and so on. It is also due to the shared physical environment, created by an international standard in products that are entirely manufactured in one country but shipped around the world. Therefore, this shared experience can be seen as a result of globalization. This is known as cultural convergence.
Cultural convergence or cultural imperialism?
Cultural convergence may be due to:
1. Hybridization: cultures ‘borrow’ from a variety of other cultures, creating a mixed and vibrant culture.
2. Westernisation: the European-American ‘western’ culture is adopted by other cultures, leading to a ‘global’ culture. This theory is most closely related to cultural imperialism.
Cultural convergence may be due to:
1. Hybridization: cultures ‘borrow’ from a variety of other cultures, creating a mixed and vibrant culture.
2. Westernisation: the European-American ‘western’ culture is adopted by other cultures, leading to a ‘global’ culture. This theory is most closely related to cultural imperialism.
Cultural imperialism suggests that a dominant culture uses its power – usually military or economically – to subdue other cultures. The aim is to exert authority and power over the less dominant culture. In Geography for the IB Diploma, Paul Guinness defines cultural imperialism as ‘the practice of promoting the culture or language of one nation in another’.
Historically, cultural imperialism is best viewed during the colonial imperialism of the 19th century. During this period, the European powers (plus the USA) divided up Africa amongst themselves at the 1884-5 Berlin Conference, which formalized the ‘Scramble for Africa’. It was a common view that the Africans were without civilization and that they needed to be introduced to European ways of behaving, believing and working. This was a direct political action and ended with the independence movements following the Second World War.
Today’s dominant power is the USA. The cultural imperialism argument states that the USA, along with its economic and military allies in Europe, is using its economic power to gain extra marketing power (i.e. customers) for its entertainment, technological and other industries. Cultural imperialism also suggests the USA and its partners are exporting democracy which may not always be suitable for a country.
Exemplifying cultural imperialism
Other examples of the ways in which cultural imperialism works are:
Other examples of the ways in which cultural imperialism works are:
- killer languages. Currently 6000 languages are spoken, which may halve by 2100. There are close to 1bn English speakers despite only 360m native speakers. Due to the dominance of English speaking nations amongst the world’s richest (USA, UK, Canada, Australia, plus English as the official language of 75 other countries and territories), English has become the world’s language of science, medicine, transport and technology. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers
- global brands. Of the top 20 global brands, all are of western origin. http://interbrand.com/best-brands/best-global-brands/2016/ranking/
- method of government. The western idea of democracy as the best form of government is underpinned by recent changes to regimes following the Arab Spring. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy_Index
Source of languages graphic: http://www.scmp.com/infographics/article/1810040/infographic-world-languages
PUBLISHED : Wednesday, 27 May, 2015
PUBLISHED : Wednesday, 27 May, 2015
In summary, it’s possible (but debatable) to assert that cultural imperialism is changing the culture of peoples around the world. The dominance of a western culture over local culture suggests that cultural diversity is reducing worldwide.
THE END OF GLOBAL CULTURAL DIVERSITY: Uniform urban landscapes
A good example of how countries lose their cultural individuality is through the physical environment. Cities such as Sao Paulo, New York, Seoul, Hong Kong and Sydney all contain similar building projects such as a hi-rise Central Business District. Cheap and quick-to-build apartment buildings spread this trend into the wider city. At the same time, the extension of global brands into new locations brings a uniform commercial landscape too. This is known as the homogenization of urban landscapes.
Homogenization may be due to:
- desire for people to emulate the world’s most ‘successful’ cities such as London, New York and Hong Kong
- tourism increasing the number of people visiting cities and expecting a similar experience to that which they are used to
- increasing migration using cities as hubs, so identities built around city landscapes are more easily share and assimilated
- time-space convergence leading to the sharing of ideas more quickly
- deregulation of the financial industry leads to global corporations controlling businesses in different locations using the same methodology
- desire of global brands to standardize their products (e.g. fast food, and clothing outlets). This is best known as the ‘McDonaldisation’ of the world.
- aspiration of poorer people to ‘buy in’ to a wealthier lifestyle by choosing previously unaffordable foreign goods
- desire for people to emulate the world’s most ‘successful’ cities such as London, New York and Hong Kong
- tourism increasing the number of people visiting cities and expecting a similar experience to that which they are used to
- increasing migration using cities as hubs, so identities built around city landscapes are more easily share and assimilated
- time-space convergence leading to the sharing of ideas more quickly
- deregulation of the financial industry leads to global corporations controlling businesses in different locations using the same methodology
- desire of global brands to standardize their products (e.g. fast food, and clothing outlets). This is best known as the ‘McDonaldisation’ of the world.
- aspiration of poorer people to ‘buy in’ to a wealthier lifestyle by choosing previously unaffordable foreign goods
Some argue against this, saying that each city now is more diverse in itself. For example, food from dozens of different cultures is available in almost all major cities. This diversity, however, means that all cities are more homogenous with each other, because they are all as diverse as each other!
A more decisive argument is that of the ‘World City’. The Global Cities Index (http://www.atkearney.com/research-studies/global-cities-index) lists the countries of the world according to their globalization, yet it is clear that they have distinct cultures and urban landscapes, despite similar shops, buildings and transport infrastructures. For example, the skyline of New York and Hong Kong is similar, but clearly the cities are not identical. One cause of the homogenisation – tourism – is at the same time a clear indicator that there are differences worth seeing between cities.
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Evidence for urban homogenisation
The ways in which urban landscapes are homogenized are important to understand.
CBD – frequently the centre of the city, with glass and steel skyscrapers, indoor shopping centres, similar brands, pedestrianized centres, and ‘international food’.
Outer retail areas – also known as the ‘retail park’. These are on the edge of cities, and tend to attract the same global brands such as Ikea, Decathlon and Primark.
Transport – most major cities use an underground railway. In Hong Kong, the MTR; Singapore, the MRT; Bangkok, the MRT; Paris, the Metro; Berlin, the U-Bhan; and so on. In newer systems, the carriages are often indistinguishable except for the languages on the signs (and frequently, English is also shown), but older systems such as New York, London and Paris are instantly recognizable and individual. However, other transport methods such as highways, airport railway connections and ring roads are virtually identical.
Residential – the need for cheap and good quality housing in many growing cities has led to the growth of apartment blocks as the places where most people live. Some countries, notably Germany and the UK, have avoided apartment blocks in favour of individual housing units, but even these are often mass produced without specific localization of planning.
Industry – largely the same everywhere in the world, industrial development is drawn less from a desire for individual characteristics as a necessity to fit the standard industrial model. For example, shipping containers are sized according to international standards so that every railway, ship and factory can accommodate them. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermodal_container
The ways in which urban landscapes are homogenized are important to understand.
CBD – frequently the centre of the city, with glass and steel skyscrapers, indoor shopping centres, similar brands, pedestrianized centres, and ‘international food’.
Outer retail areas – also known as the ‘retail park’. These are on the edge of cities, and tend to attract the same global brands such as Ikea, Decathlon and Primark.
Transport – most major cities use an underground railway. In Hong Kong, the MTR; Singapore, the MRT; Bangkok, the MRT; Paris, the Metro; Berlin, the U-Bhan; and so on. In newer systems, the carriages are often indistinguishable except for the languages on the signs (and frequently, English is also shown), but older systems such as New York, London and Paris are instantly recognizable and individual. However, other transport methods such as highways, airport railway connections and ring roads are virtually identical.
Residential – the need for cheap and good quality housing in many growing cities has led to the growth of apartment blocks as the places where most people live. Some countries, notably Germany and the UK, have avoided apartment blocks in favour of individual housing units, but even these are often mass produced without specific localization of planning.
Industry – largely the same everywhere in the world, industrial development is drawn less from a desire for individual characteristics as a necessity to fit the standard industrial model. For example, shipping containers are sized according to international standards so that every railway, ship and factory can accommodate them. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermodal_container
not the end of GLOBAL cultural diversity: Diaspora
The idea of the end of cultural diversity is not supported by the vibrant cultural activities of many communities that live outside their country of origin. The dispersal of a population that was formerly concentrated in one place is known as a diaspora. Examples include the Chinese (especially Cantonese) who now live in Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, Canada, the USA and many other countries where ‘Chinatown’ is a recognizable feature of the frame of city centres in the core-frame model. Another example is the Irish, who tended to move to English speaking countries, during the 19th century and first half of the 20th century.
Diaspora frequently result in a very strong attachment to an original culture. This does not mean that they do not assimilate into the majority culture, but that celebrations (such as religious observances) are firmly retained, and language is often passed down through generations as a point of pride.
There are several key ideas that help diaspora retain their cultural identity:
- Concentration: immigrant populations are often concentrated in small areas on arrival in a new country, either through government policy or the desire for individuals to be with others from their own community who share their culture
- Ethnic villages: regardless of residential location (especially for second and third generation immigrants), communities may come together in urban ‘villages’ such as around places of worship, language schools, social facilities like libraries, or locations where cultural events like carnivals occur.
- ‘Otherness’: In areas where there has been limited in-migration, some ethnicities may be easily identified by their skin colour, leading to discrimination and a corresponding positive reaction to group together for cultural security
- Concentration: immigrant populations are often concentrated in small areas on arrival in a new country, either through government policy or the desire for individuals to be with others from their own community who share their culture
- Ethnic villages: regardless of residential location (especially for second and third generation immigrants), communities may come together in urban ‘villages’ such as around places of worship, language schools, social facilities like libraries, or locations where cultural events like carnivals occur.
- ‘Otherness’: In areas where there has been limited in-migration, some ethnicities may be easily identified by their skin colour, leading to discrimination and a corresponding positive reaction to group together for cultural security
not the end of global cultural diversity: Nationalism
The nation-state will be looked at in more detail in ‘The Death of the Nation State’ section. However, nationalism is an important rebuttal to the end of cultural diversity. Nationalism is founded on the concept that a nation-state is held together by a common language, education, symbols, dress, belief and so on. Nationalism may be seen either as an expression of faith and love for the nation-state, or as a reaction to threats from external forces. (Interestingly, a nationalist may identify an ‘external’ threat as cultural diversity from within their own country, as it threatens to reduce the strength of the dominant or indigenous culture.)
The Oxford Geography Course Companion defines nationalism as “a political movement or belief that holds that a nation has the right to an independent political development based on a shared history and common destiny”.
Case study of Nationalism: The United Kingdom
Map source: http://mapsof.net/map/united-kingdom-labelled-map
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An example of nationalism is the Scottish independence election in 2014. Scotland was asked to decide whether to remain part of the United Kingdom (with England, Wales and Northern Ireland) or to be made into an independent country. In this example, the Scottish people chose to remain part of the UK. Meanwhile, the rise of the United Kingdom Independence Party has made it the 'fourth party of British politics'.
The map (left) shows the parts of the United Kingdom. The political geography of the country is complicated. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland all have 'devolved' separate legislative assemblies, which have some powers such as education and healthcare. England does not. All the countries take their power from the main parliament in London. All English affairs are voted on there. This has created a two-tier system where all Scottish, Welsh and Northern Irish members of parliament may vote on English issues, but English members do not get to vote on local issues that are dealt with in the other legislative assemblies. |
Case study part 1: Scotland's referendum
In Sepember 2014, the people of Scotland voted on a single issue. "Should Scotland be an independent country?". The result was 'No' with 55% of the vote.
However, 45% voted in favour of independence from the United Kingdom, demonstrating a strong level of public support for a Scottish nation-state. Why? Arguments in favour of Scottish nationhood: Why did nationalism almost win the day? These issues largely come down to the expression of local issues over wider international issues.
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Map showing the election results of Scotland. Green means 'yes' and red means 'no'.
Source: http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_independence_referendum,_2014#/image/File:Scottish_independence_referendum_results.svg |
Arguments against Scottish nationhood
These are just some of the many arguments that won the day in September 2015.
These are just some of the many arguments that won the day in September 2015.
- Fear of the future: this was especially the case with the fear that oil would not be a sustainable income, which the Scottish needed
- Dislike of the European Union: The failure of the Eurozone to protect countries from economic hardship ('austerity') in Greece, Spain, Italy, Portugal, Ireland and others, led to nervousness about the ability of Scotland to maintain a healthy economy
- Keeping the currency: the British pound is a 'hard' currency, meaning it has a strong value and is traded around the world. This helps to maintain a stable economy. The London government indicated that they would not be happy if Scotland continued to use the British pound, leaving Scotland with the option of the Euro or an independent currency.
- Sense of cultural affinity: many Scots, especially in the south, felt that the union between England and Scotland going back to 1707 meant the countries had enough shared culture and history to validate the continuation of the political union.
Case study part 2: The Rise of UKIP
IMPORTANT NOTE (August 2017): The following section was written prior to the referendum which led to the UK's formal declaration that it would leave the European Union. Since that referendum, UKIP has lost most of its voters. This is a consequence of the complex and unfolding issues surrounding Brexit.
The United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) identifies with nationalism. It's website states:
"UKIP is a patriotic party that promotes independence: from the EU, and from government interference. We believe in free trade, lower taxes, personal freedom and responsibility. UKIP believes in Britain becoming a democratic, self-governing country once again. This can only be achieved by getting our nation out of the European Union and reasserting the sovereignty of Parliament. As a party we are unashamedly patriotic: we believe there is so much to be proud about Britain and the contribution it has made to the world. We believe that Britain is good enough to be an independent nation, trading and building harmonious relations with the rest of the world. We believe Britain must get back control over its borders, so that it can welcome people with a positive contribution to make while limiting the overall numbers of migrants and keeping out those without the skills or aptitudes to be of benefit to the nation. UKIP believes in promoting self-reliance and personal freedom from state interference. We believe the state in Britain has become too large, too expensive and too dominant over civil society." |
Voting and UKIP: The evidence
Image source: http://viva-freemania.blogspot.hk/2013/05/the-rise-of-ukip.html
In the 2014 European elections, UKIP won the biggest share of the vote and the largest number of seats. This was the first time since 1906 that a party other than the Conservatives or Labour (the two 'traditional' main parties) won the popular vote in a national election.
It's also possible to see that UKIP has been doing well in other elections. The map to the right shows the voting in recent smaller elections such as local elections. Source: http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-29568123
Why is UKIP becoming more popular?
There are several possible reasons for the rise of English nationalism. Though UKIP states it is a British party, it has relatively little support outside of the core area of England. A good summary of the issues can be found here.
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Source for both graphics: https://yougov.co.uk/news/2014/02/24/where-ukip-gets-its-support/
The video below is from April 2013. It summarises the position of UKIP and its rising popularity at that time.