The Syllabus Says...
Examine the concept of food miles as an indicator of environmental impact.
Defining Food Miles
The IBDP Geography Guide (first examination 2011) defines food miles as:
"A measure of the distance that food travels from its source to the consumer. This can be given either in units of actual distance or of energy consumed during transport."
The overall concept evolved in the early 1990s. However, there is no easy way to accurately measure the distance; nor is there a specific unit that is used to measure the transport - and, even more debatably, there's more to food miles than simple distance. This is reflected in a broader definition:
"The expression 'food miles' relates to the environmental and social costs associated with transporting food from where it is produced to where it is processed, and then to the wholesaler, retailer or catering outlet, and on to the end-consumer. It is not concerned with the financial cost of transporting goods." (Source: http://www.igd.com/Research/Sustainability/Food-miles-evaluating-the-impact)
This page outlines the issues with food miles and why food miles are a limited way to measure the total environmental impact of food. It is NOT about whether food SHOULD be produced locally or not; it's about evaluating the measurement of food miles.
"A measure of the distance that food travels from its source to the consumer. This can be given either in units of actual distance or of energy consumed during transport."
The overall concept evolved in the early 1990s. However, there is no easy way to accurately measure the distance; nor is there a specific unit that is used to measure the transport - and, even more debatably, there's more to food miles than simple distance. This is reflected in a broader definition:
"The expression 'food miles' relates to the environmental and social costs associated with transporting food from where it is produced to where it is processed, and then to the wholesaler, retailer or catering outlet, and on to the end-consumer. It is not concerned with the financial cost of transporting goods." (Source: http://www.igd.com/Research/Sustainability/Food-miles-evaluating-the-impact)
This page outlines the issues with food miles and why food miles are a limited way to measure the total environmental impact of food. It is NOT about whether food SHOULD be produced locally or not; it's about evaluating the measurement of food miles.
Are food miles easy to calculate?
The answer to this question is not straightforward. It depends on how the 'food' is defined.
Single origin foods
This includes simple foods like an apple, or a potato. The food is transported in the form it is originally produced, i.e. the farmer grows a potato, the potato is transported to the shop, and the consumer buys the potato.
These are the easiest foods to determine the food miles issue and there are several online calculators such as this one.
Even these foods have problems:
Multiple origin foods
This is when a food is made up of several ingredients, such as cornflakes (corn, sugar, emulsifier etc.) or a chocolate bar (cocoa, sugar, milk etc.). These are much harder to give as a specific food mile because each ingredient may have come from a different location. Every ingredient must receive its own individual value and an overall value established.
Single origin foods
This includes simple foods like an apple, or a potato. The food is transported in the form it is originally produced, i.e. the farmer grows a potato, the potato is transported to the shop, and the consumer buys the potato.
These are the easiest foods to determine the food miles issue and there are several online calculators such as this one.
Even these foods have problems:
- Generic distances are given between countries and/or regions. It's highly unlikely that you will be able to calculate the food miles between an individual farm and the shop you buy it from
- Since food uses more greenhouse gases to transport when it weighs more, the value of the food 'mile' often doesn't reflect the actual environmental impact
Multiple origin foods
This is when a food is made up of several ingredients, such as cornflakes (corn, sugar, emulsifier etc.) or a chocolate bar (cocoa, sugar, milk etc.). These are much harder to give as a specific food mile because each ingredient may have come from a different location. Every ingredient must receive its own individual value and an overall value established.
Why are food miles going up?
Food miles are increasing due to the increasing globalization of the food supply. This has happened for several reasons:
- Farming subsidies - farmers in richer countries often receive subsidies (payments) from their government. The government gives them the money to make them produce more. This means that many countries have a surplus of food that they can sell to other countries, which encourages the global movement of food.
- Green Revolution - in the same way that subsidies meant some countries have a surplus, the Green Revolution has meant that poorer countries may also have a surplus that they sell around the world.
- World trade - as large agricultural companies are trying to sell their food around the world and not just to their local customers, they must grow food in the most profitable way. This means they try to grow food that others struggle to produce because it means there's less competition. Agricultulrral companies therefore grow cash crops such as sugar, cocoa and coffee. These crops don't make up the majority of a person's diet, but they can be sold for a high price because they only grow in specific locations. Farmers in other countries can't grow them, so the price is higher.
- International policies - many international organisations will loan money to farmers only if they grow food that can be sold. This encourages global trade in food.
- Trans National Companies (TNCs) - transnational companies grow food in many different locations, then put them together in one product. This means that the ingredients - and the final products - need to be transported.
Why are food miles a good measurement?
- Simple concept
- Reflects the environmental impact of transport (mainly the energy used to transport the food)
- Rather than focusing on the country producing the food, it shifts the responsibility to the country consuming the food, so it's fairer
- Encourages people to take positive action towards reducing their carbon footprint
- Cumulative causation in the local economy as people buy local food
What are the problems with using food miles?
The main issue: production emissions versus transportation emissions
The question of whether food miles are a good or bad indicator of the environmental impact of food comes down to this question: are production emissions higher or lower than transportation emissions?
Production emissions are the greenhouse gases produced on the farm itself. For example, cows produce a large amount of greenhouse gases (especially methane). Rice paddies also create a large amount of greenhouse gases. Transportation emissions are created by the vehicle (e.g. truck, ship or aeroplane) when food is moved from one place to another. In general, the greater the distance, the more emissions. The result is that some farms can have very high production emissions.
Other considerations: what's not measured?
The following are partly sourced from Ismo Rama's and Patrick Lawrence's excellent evaluation of food miles.
The question of whether food miles are a good or bad indicator of the environmental impact of food comes down to this question: are production emissions higher or lower than transportation emissions?
Production emissions are the greenhouse gases produced on the farm itself. For example, cows produce a large amount of greenhouse gases (especially methane). Rice paddies also create a large amount of greenhouse gases. Transportation emissions are created by the vehicle (e.g. truck, ship or aeroplane) when food is moved from one place to another. In general, the greater the distance, the more emissions. The result is that some farms can have very high production emissions.
- Sometimes, the energy required to grow food locally is more than the energy required to transport it from a long way away. The most common example is lamb from New Zealand being sold to Europe. In New Zealand, the lambs don't require extra feed during the winter, nor indoor shelter (with heat and light). In northern Europe, they do.
- The amount of energy consumed isn't necessarily linked to the distance travelled. Think of a banana travelling by cargo ship compared to an international flight. The flight uses far more energy yet the same miles are given
Other considerations: what's not measured?
The following are partly sourced from Ismo Rama's and Patrick Lawrence's excellent evaluation of food miles.
- As said above, food miles are 'per ingredient' which is hard to work out
- There are many other environmental issues, other than simple energy, that affect the impact of food. For example, rice produces methane. Also, fertilizers and pesticides may end up in local fresh water. And growing more food locally might involve the destruction of habitats in order to increase the amount of land for farming.
- Long term development might be hindered in poor countries. MICs and LICs are often the ones producing food for export over large distances (see cash crops above). If they don't develop (from selling their produce) they might not be able to afford sustainable farming methods, leading to increased environmental damage in the long run.